Damascus Citadel:
Damascus Citadel, situated in the northwest corner of the ancient city, was initially fortified under the rule of Turkmen warlord Aziz Bin Awaq al-Khawarzami in 1076. Although Damascus Citadel was not completed during his reign, subsequent ruler Abu Said Taj al-Dawleh Tatash al-Seljuqi oversaw its expansion and modification.
Over the following centuries, Damascus Citadel underwent several rounds of restoration due to numerous sieges by Crusaders and rival Muslim armies. In 1154, Nur al-Din Mahmoud Zenki successfully captured Damascus and made the citadel his residence. Under his rule, significant enhancements were made to the city’s fortifications, along with repairs following an earthquake in 1170.
Shortly after Nur al-Din’s death in 1174, Salah al-Din Yousef Bin Ayoub seized control of the city. He added a tower to Damascus Citadel and restored its residential buildings. Following a period of instability following Salah al-Din’s demise in 1193, al-Aadil Seif al-Din Abu Bakr Bin Ayoub eventually established his authority over Damascus.
Between 1203 and 1216, al-Aadil Seif al-Din carried out extensive reconstruction of the citadel. This effort was partly motivated by earthquakes in 1200 and 1202, but primarily driven by the need to reinforce defenses in response to advancements in siege warfare. However, after al-Aadil Seif al-Din’s death in 1218, the city experienced a prolonged period of instability and power struggles.
In 1260, the Mongols conquered Damascus and dismantled a significant portion of the city’s defences. However, they were later defeated by the Mamluks, and the citadel was reconstructed under the leadership of al-Zahir Rukn al-Din Baibars al-Bandaqdari. The citadel faced another siege by the Mongols in 1300, resulting in substantial damage to its eastern side.
Throughout the 14th century, conflicts between the rulers of Cairo and Aleppo led to additional sieges on the city. In 1400-1401, the citadel suffered further destruction when the Mongols besieged the city once again. Mining operations caused the collapse of the north-western tower, leading to the surrender of the garrison and a devastating massacre of the citadel’s defenders. The Umayyad Mosque was also set ablaze. The damage was eventually repaired in 1407, with further restoration work taking place in the late 15th and early 16th centuries.
During much of the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire controlled Damascus, and their infantry occupied the citadel. Although this period was relatively stable, occasional conflicts between Ottoman troops, city governors, and Damascene residents resulted in additional damage to Damascus Citadel. An earthquake in 1759 caused the western and southern walls to crumble, but repairs were carried out in 1761.
In 1860, Christian refugees who had fled from Lebanon sought sanctuary in the citadel after sectarian tensions escalated into massacres against the Christian population of the city. European travelers reported in 1895 that the citadel’s defences remained in good condition, but the internal structures were in ruins. From the late 19th century until 1986, the citadel served as a barracks and prison under Ottoman rule, the French Mandate, and beyond.
Compared to its counterpart in Aleppo, the Damascus Citadel is less imposing, situated on flat ground with no natural defences apart from the Barada River running alongside its northern walls. While restoration efforts have been ongoing for the past decade, much of the interior remains in ruins. The expansive courtyard is occasionally open to visitors, but a walk along the external walls provides the best glimpse of the fortifications.
Among the twelve surviving towers, the southwestern tower, located at the entrance to Souq al-Hamidiyeh, stands out as particularly remarkable. The largest tower, measuring 21 meters by 23 meters, is the north-western tower, dating back to 1209. The eastern entrance, built during the reign of al-Aadil Seif al-Din, boasts a gateway adorned with muqarnas, leading to a breathtaking domed hall supported by four massive columns.
